সোমবার, ৩০ মার্চ, ২০২০


Page extended-protected

Coronavirus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the group of viruses. For the disease involved in the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic, see Coronavirus disease 2019. For the virus that causes this disease, see Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.
Orthocoronavirinae
Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg
Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of avian infectious bronchitis virus
SARS-CoV-2 without background.png
Illustration of the morphology of coronaviruses; the club-shaped viral spike peplomers, colored red, create the look of a corona surrounding the virion when observed with an electron microscope.
Virus classification e
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Phylum: incertae sedis
Order: Nidovirales
Family: Coronaviridae
Subfamily: Orthocoronavirinae
Genera[1]
Synonyms[2][3][4]
  • Coronavirinae
Coronaviruses are a group of related viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. In humans, coronaviruses cause respiratory tract infections that can be mild, such as some cases of the common cold (among other possible causes, predominantly rhinoviruses), and others that can be lethal, such as SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. Symptoms in other species vary: in chickens, they cause an upper respiratory tract disease, while in cows and pigs they cause diarrhea. There are yet to be vaccines or antiviral drugs to prevent or treat human coronavirus infections.
Coronaviruses constitute the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae, in the family Coronaviridae, order Nidovirales, and realm Riboviria.[5][6] They are enveloped viruses with a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and a nucleocapsid of helical symmetry. The genome size of coronaviruses ranges from approximately 27 to 34 kilobases, the largest among known RNA viruses.[7] The name coronavirus is derived from the Latin corona, meaning "crown" or "halo", which refers to the characteristic appearance reminiscent of a crown or a solar corona around the virions (virus particles) when viewed under two-dimensional transmission electron microscopy, due to the surface being covered in club-shaped protein spikes.

Discovery

Human coronaviruses were first discovered in the late 1960s.[8] The earliest ones discovered were an infectious bronchitis virus in chickens and two in human patients with the common cold (later named human coronavirus 229E and human coronavirus OC43).[9] Other members of this family have since been identified, including SARS-CoV in 2003, HCoV NL63 in 2004, HKU1 in 2005, MERS-CoV in 2012, and SARS-CoV-2 (formerly known as 2019-nCoV) in 2019. Most of these have involved serious respiratory tract infections.

Etymology

The name "coronavirus" is derived from Latin corona, meaning "crown" or "wreath", itself a borrowing from Greek κορώνη korṓnē, "garland, wreath". The name refers to the characteristic appearance of virions (the infective form of the virus) by electron microscopy, which have a fringe of large, bulbous surface projections creating an image reminiscent of a crown or of a solar corona. This morphology is created by the viral spike peplomers, which are proteins on the surface of the virus.[10][11]

Morphology

Cross-sectional model of a coronavirus
Cross-sectional model of a coronavirus
Coronaviruses are large pleomorphic spherical particles with bulbous surface projections.[12] The diameter of the virus particles is around 120 nm.[13] The envelope of the virus in electron micrographs appears as a distinct pair of electron dense shells.[14]
The viral envelope consists of a lipid bilayer where the membrane (M), envelope (E) and spike (S) structural proteins are anchored.[15] A subset of coronaviruses (specifically the members of betacoronavirus subgroup A) also have a shorter spike-like surface protein called hemagglutinin esterase (HE).[5]
Inside the envelope, there is the nucleocapsid, which is formed from multiple copies of the nucleocapsid (N) protein, which are bound to the positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome in a continuous beads-on-a-string type conformation.[13][16] The lipid bilayer envelope, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid protect the virus when it is outside the host cell.[17]

Genome

Schematic representation of the genome organization and functional domains of S protein for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV.
Coronaviruses contain a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. The genome size for coronaviruses ranges from approximately 27 to 34 kilobases.[7] The genome size is one of the largest among RNA viruses. The genome has a 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail.[18]
The genome organization for a coronavirus is 5′-leader-UTR-replicase/transcriptase-spike (S)-envelope (E)-membrane (M)-nucleocapsid (N)-3′UTR-poly (A) tail. The open reading frames 1a and 1b, which occupy the first two-thirds of the genome, encode the replicase/transcriptase polyprotein. The replicase/transcriptase polyprotein self cleaves to form the nonstructural proteins (nsps).[19]
The later reading frames encode the four major structural proteins: spike, envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid.[20] Interspersed between these reading frames are the reading frames for the accessory proteins. The number of accessory proteins and their function is unique depending on the specific coronavirus.[19]

Life cycle

Entry

The life cycle of a coronavirus
Infection begins when the viral spike (S) glycoprotein attaches to its complementary host cell receptor. After attachment, a protease of the host cell cleaves and activates the receptor-attached spike protein. Depending on the host cell protease available, cleavage and activation allows the virus to enter the host cell by endocytosis or direct fusion of the viral envelop with the host membrane.[21]
On entry into the host cell, the virus particle is uncoated, and its genome enters the cell cytoplasm.[22] The coronavirus RNA genome has a 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail, which allows the RNA to attach to the host cell's ribosome for translation.[23] The host ribosome translates the initial overlapping open reading frame of the virus genome and forms a long polyprotein. The polyprotein has its own proteases which cleave the polyprotein into multiple nonstructural proteins.[19]

Replication

A number of the nonstructural proteins coalesce to form a multi-protein replicase-transcriptase complex (RTC). The main replicase-transcriptase protein is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). It is directly involved in the replication and transcription of RNA from an RNA strand. The other nonstructural proteins in the complex assist in the replication and transcription process. The exoribonuclease non-structural protein, for instance, provides extra fidelity to replication by providing a proofreading function which the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase lacks.[24]
One of the main functions of the complex is to replicate the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates the synthesis of negative-sense genomic RNA from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This is followed by the replication of positive-sense genomic RNA from the negative-sense genomic RNA.[19] The other important function of the complex is to transcribe the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates the synthesis of negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This is followed by the transcription of these negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules to their corresponding positive-sense mRNAs.[19]

Release

The replicated positive-sense genomic RNA becomes the genome of the progeny viruses. The mRNAs are gene transcripts of the last third of the virus genome after the initial overlapping reading frame. These mRNAs are translated by the host's ribosomes into the structural proteins and a number of accessory proteins.[19] RNA translation occurs inside the endoplasmic reticulum. The viral structural proteins S, E, and M move along the secretory pathway into the Golgi intermediate compartment. There, the M proteins direct most protein-protein interactions required for assembly of viruses following its binding to the nucleocapsid.[25] Progeny viruses are then released from the host cell by exocytosis through secretory vesicles.[25]

Transmission

Human to human transmission of coronaviruses is primarily thought to occur among close contacts via respiratory droplets generated by sneezing and coughing.[26] The interaction of the coronavirus spike protein with its complement host cell receptor is central in determining the tissue tropism, infectivity, and species range of the virus.[27][28] The SARS coronavirus, for example, infects human cells by attaching to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor.[29]

Taxonomy

For a more detailed list of members, see Coronaviridae.
Phylogenetic tree of coronaviruses
The scientific name for coronavirus is Orthocoronavirinae or Coronavirinae.[2][3][4] Coronavirus belongs to the family of Coronaviridae.

Evolution

The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all coronaviruses has been estimated to have existed as recently as 8000 BCE, though some models place the MRCA as far back as 55 million years or more, implying long term coevolution with bats.[30] The MRCAs of the alphacoronavirus line has been placed at about 2400 BCE, the betacoronavirus line at 3300 BCE, the gammacoronavirus line at 2800 BCE, and the deltacoronavirus line at about 3000 BCE. It appears that bats and birds, as warm-blooded flying vertebrates, are ideal hosts for the coronavirus gene source (with bats for alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus, and birds for gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus) to fuel coronavirus evolution and dissemination.[31]
Bovine coronavirus and canine respiratory coronaviruses diverged from a common ancestor recently (~ 1950).[32] Bovine coronavirus and human coronavirus OC43 diverged around the 1890s. Bovine coronavirus diverged from the equine coronavirus species at the end of the 18th century.[33]
The MRCA of human coronavirus OC43 has been dated to the 1950s.[34]
MERS-CoV, although related to several bat coronavirus species, appears to have diverged from these several centuries ago.[35] The human coronavirus NL63 and a bat coronavirus shared an MRCA 563–822 years ago.[36]
The most closely related bat coronavirus and SARS-CoV diverged in 1986.[37] A path of evolution of the SARS virus and keen relationship with bats have been proposed. The authors suggest that the coronaviruses have been coevolved with bats for a long time and the ancestors of SARS-CoV first infected the species of the genus Hipposideridae, subsequently spread to species of the Rhinolophidae and then to civets, and finally to humans.[38][39]
Alpaca coronavirus and human coronavirus 229E diverged before 1960.[40]

Human coronaviruses

Illustration of SARSr-CoV virion
Coronaviruses vary significantly in risk factor. Some can kill more than 30% of those infected (such as MERS-CoV), and some are relatively harmless, such as the common cold.[19] Coronaviruses cause colds with major symptoms, such as fever, and sore throat from swollen adenoids, occurring primarily in the winter and early spring seasons.[41] Coronaviruses can cause pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or a secondary bacterial pneumonia) and bronchitis (either direct viral bronchitis or a secondary bacterial bronchitis).[42] The much publicized human coronavirus discovered in 2003, SARS-CoV, which causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), has a unique pathogenesis because it causes both upper and lower respiratory tract infections.[42]
Seven strains of human coronaviruses are known, of which four produce the generally mild symptoms of the common cold:
  1. Human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43), Betacoronavirus
  2. Human coronavirus HKU1, Betacoronavirus, its genome has 75% similarity to OC43[43]
  3. Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), Alphacoronavirus
  4. Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63, New Haven coronavirus), Alphacoronavirus
– and three, symptoms that are potentially severe:
  1. Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), previously known as novel coronavirus 2012 and HCoV-EMC
  2. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or "SARS-classic")
  3. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), previously known as 2019-nCoV or "novel coronavirus 2019"
The coronaviruses HCoV-229E, -NL63, -OC43, and -HKU1 continually circulate in the human population and cause respiratory infections in adults and children world-wide.[44]

Outbreaks of coronavirus-related diseases

Outbreaks of coronavirus types of relatively high mortality are as follows:
Outbreak Virus type Deaths
2002–2004 severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak SARS-CoV 774[45]
2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreak MERS-CoV Over 400[46]
2015 Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak in South Korea MERS-CoV 36[47]
2018 Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak MERS-CoV 41[48]
2019–2020 coronavirus pandemic SARS-CoV-2 At least 33,597[49]

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Main article: Severe acute respiratory syndrome
Characteristics of patients who have been
infected with coronaviruses of the types
SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, or SARS-CoV[50] (
)

SARS-CoV-2 MERS-CoV SARS-CoV
Demographic
Date of first
identified case		 December
2019		 June
2012		 November
2002
Location of first
identified case		 Wuhan,
China		 Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia		 Shunde,
China
Age average 56[51] 56 39.9
Age range all ages 14–94 1–91
Male:female ratio 1.6:1[51] 3.3:1 1:1.25
Confirmed cases 713,171[49][a] 2494 8096
Deaths 33,597[49][a] 858 744
Case fatality rate 3.4% 37% 10%
Health-care workers 8%[52] 9.8% 23.1%
Symptoms
Fever 87.9%[53] 98% 99–100%
Dry cough 67.7%[53] 47% 29–75%
Dyspnea 18.6%[53] 72% 40–42%
Diarrhea 3.7%[53] 26% 20–25%
Sore throat 13.9%[53] 21% 13–25%
Ventilatory support 4.1%[54] 24.5%[55] 14–20%
Notes

  1. Data as of 29 March 2020.
In 2003, following the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) which had begun the prior year in Asia, and secondary cases elsewhere in the world, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a press release stating that a novel coronavirus identified by a number of laboratories was the causative agent for SARS. The virus was officially named the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). More than 8,000 people were infected, about ten percent of whom died.[29]

Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)

Main article: Middle East respiratory syndrome
In September 2012, a new type of coronavirus was identified, initially called Novel Coronavirus 2012, and now officially named Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV).[56][57] The World Health Organization issued a global alert soon after.[58] The WHO update on 28 September 2012 said the virus did not seem to pass easily from person to person.[59] However, on 12 May 2013, a case of human-to-human transmission in France was confirmed by the French Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.[60] In addition, cases of human-to-human transmission were reported by the Ministry of Health in Tunisia. Two confirmed cases involved people who seemed to have caught the disease from their late father, who became ill after a visit to Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Despite this, it appears the virus had trouble spreading from human to human, as most individuals who are infected do not transmit the virus.[61] By 30 October 2013, there were 124 cases and 52 deaths in Saudi Arabia.[62]
After the Dutch Erasmus Medical Centre sequenced the virus, the virus was given a new name, Human Coronavirus–Erasmus Medical Centre (HCoV-EMC). The final name for the virus is Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). In May 2014, the only two United States cases of MERS-CoV infection were recorded, both occurring in healthcare workers who worked in Saudi Arabia and then travelled to the U.S. One was treated in Indiana and one in Florida. Both were hospitalized temporarily and then discharged.[63]
In May 2015, an outbreak of MERS-CoV occurred in the Republic of Korea, when a man who had traveled to the Middle East, visited 4 hospitals in the Seoul area to treat his illness. This caused one of the largest outbreaks of MERS-CoV outside the Middle East.[64] As of December 2019, 2,468 cases of MERS-CoV infection had been confirmed by laboratory tests, 851 of which were fatal, a mortality rate of approximately 34.5%.[65]

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Main article: Coronavirus disease 2019
In December 2019, a pneumonia outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China.[66] On 31 December 2019, the outbreak was traced to a novel strain of coronavirus,[67] which was given the interim name 2019-nCoV by the World Health Organization (WHO),[68][69][70] later renamed SARS-CoV-2 by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Some researchers have suggested that the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market may not be the original source of viral transmission to humans.[71][72]
As of 29 March 2020, there have been at least 33,597[49] confirmed deaths and more than 713,171[49] confirmed cases in the coronavirus pneumonia pandemic. The Wuhan strain has been identified as a new strain of Betacoronavirus from group 2B with approximately 70% genetic similarity to the SARS-CoV.[73] The virus has a 96% similarity to a bat coronavirus, so it is widely suspected to originate from bats as well.[71][74] The pandemic has resulted in travel restrictions and nationwide lockdowns in several countries.

Other animals

Coronaviruses have been recognized as causing pathological conditions in veterinary medicine since the early 1970s. Except for avian infectious bronchitis, the major related diseases have mainly an intestinal location.[75]

Diseases caused

Coronaviruses primarily infect the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tract of mammals and birds. They also cause a range of diseases in farm animals and domesticated pets, some of which can be serious and are a threat to the farming industry. In chickens, the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, targets not only the respiratory tract but also the urogenital tract. The virus can spread to different organs throughout the chicken.[76] Economically significant coronaviruses of farm animals include porcine coronavirus (transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus, TGE) and bovine coronavirus, which both result in diarrhea in young animals. Feline coronavirus: two forms, feline enteric coronavirus is a pathogen of minor clinical significance, but spontaneous mutation of this virus can result in feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), a disease associated with high mortality. Similarly, there are two types of coronavirus that infect ferrets: Ferret enteric coronavirus causes a gastrointestinal syndrome known as epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE), and a more lethal systemic version of the virus (like FIP in cats) known as ferret systemic coronavirus (FSC).[77] There are two types of canine coronavirus (CCoV), one that causes mild gastrointestinal disease and one that has been found to cause respiratory disease. Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) is a coronavirus that causes an epidemic murine illness with high mortality, especially among colonies of laboratory mice.[78] Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) is highly infectious coronavirus of laboratory rats, which can be transmitted between individuals by direct contact and indirectly by aerosol. Acute infections have high morbidity and tropism for the salivary, lachrymal and harderian glands.[79]
A HKU2-related bat coronavirus called swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) causes diarrhea in pigs.[80]
Prior to the discovery of SARS-CoV, MHV had been the best-studied coronavirus both in vivo and in vitro as well as at the molecular level. Some strains of MHV cause a progressive demyelinating encephalitis in mice which has been used as a murine model for multiple sclerosis. Significant research efforts have been focused on elucidating the viral pathogenesis of these animal coronaviruses, especially by virologists interested in veterinary and zoonotic diseases.[81]

In domestic animals

Genomic cis-acting elements

In common with the genomes of all other RNA viruses, coronavirus genomes contain cis-acting RNA elements that ensure the specific replication of viral RNA by a virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. The embedded cis-acting elements devoted to coronavirus replication constitute a small fraction of the total genome, but this is presumed to be a reflection of the fact that coronaviruses have the largest genomes of all RNA viruses. The boundaries of cis-acting elements essential to replication are fairly well-defined, and the RNA secondary structures of these regions are understood. However, how these cis-acting structures and sequences interact with the viral replicase and host cell components to allow RNA synthesis is not well understood.[87][5]

Genome packaging

The assembly of infectious coronavirus particles requires the selection of viral genomic RNA from a cellular pool that contains an abundant excess of non-viral and viral RNAs. Among the seven to ten specific viral mRNAs synthesized in virus-infected cells, only the full-length genomic RNA is packaged efficiently into coronavirus particles. Studies have revealed cis-acting elements and trans-acting viral factors involved in the coronavirus genome encapsidation and packaging. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of genome selection and packaging is critical for developing antiviral strategies and viral expression vectors based on the coronavirus genome.[87][5]

See also

References


  • "Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2019. Archived from the original on 2018-03-04. Retrieved 2020-01-24.

  • "2017.012-015S" (xlsx). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). October 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-05-14. Retrieved 2020-01-24.

  • "ICTV Taxonomy history: Orthocoronavirinae". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 2020-01-24.

  • Fan Y, Zhao K, Shi ZL, Zhou P (March 2019). "Bat Coronaviruses in China". Viruses. 11 (3): 210. doi:10.3390/v11030210. PMC 6466186. PMID 30832341.

  • de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric R, Enjuanes L, Gorbalenya AE, Holmes KV, Perlman S, Poon L, Rottier PJ, Talbot PJ, Woo PC, Ziebuhr J (2011). "Family Coronaviridae". In King AM, Lefkowitz E, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, International Union of Microbiological Societies. Virology Division (eds.). Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 806–28. ISBN 978-0-12-384684-6.

  • International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2010-08-24). "ICTV Master Species List 2009—v10" (xls).

  • Sexton NR, Smith EC, Blanc H, Vignuzzi M, Peersen OB, Denison MR (August 2016). "Homology-Based Identification of a Mutation in the Coronavirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase That Confers Resistance to Multiple Mutagens". Journal of Virology. 90 (16): 7415–28. doi:10.1128/JVI.00080-16. PMC 4984655. PMID 27279608. CoVs also have the largest known RNA virus genomes, ranging from 27 to 34 kb (31, 32), and increased fidelity in CoVs is likely required for the maintenance of these large genomes (14).

  • Kahn, Jeffrey; McIntosh, Kenneth (November 2005), "History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery", Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 24 (11): s223–s227, doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60, archived from the original on 2020-02-05

  • Geller C, Varbanov M, Duval RE (November 2012). "Human coronaviruses: insights into environmental resistance and its influence on the development of new antiseptic strategies". Viruses. 4 (11): 3044–68. doi:10.3390/v4113044. PMC 3509683. PMID 23202515.

  • "Virology: Coronaviruses". Nature. 220 (5168): 650–650. November 1968. doi:10.1038/220650b0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7086490. [T]here is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 A long, which are rounded or petal shaped ... This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others.

  • Sturman, Lawrence S.; Holmes, Kathryn V. (1983-01-01), Lauffer, Max A.; Maramorosch, Karl (eds.), "The Molecular Biology of Coronaviruses", Advances in Virus Research, Academic Press, 28, pp. 35–112, retrieved 2020-03-24, [T]hese viruses displayed a characteristic fringe of large, distinctive, petal-shaped peplomers or spikes which resembled a crown, like the corona spinarum in religious art; hence the name coronaviruses.

  • Goldsmith CS, Tatti KM, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Comer JA, Lee WW, et al. (February 2004). "Ultrastructural characterization of SARS coronavirus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10 (2): 320–6. doi:10.3201/eid1002.030913. PMC 3322934. PMID 15030705. Virions acquired an envelope by budding into the cisternae and formed mostly spherical, sometimes pleomorphic, particles that averaged 78 nm in diameter (Figure 1A).

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.). "An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis; Section 2 Genomic Organization". Methods in Molecular Biology. Springer. 1282: 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. ISBN 978-1-4939-2438-7. PMC 4369385. PMID 25720466. See section: Virion Structure.

  • Neuman BW, Adair BD, Yoshioka C, Quispe JD, Orca G, Kuhn P, et al. (August 2006). "Supramolecular architecture of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus revealed by electron cryomicroscopy". Journal of Virology. 80 (16): 7918–28. doi:10.1128/JVI.00645-06. PMC 1563832. PMID 16873249. Particle diameters ranged from 50 to 150 nm, excluding the spikes, with mean particle diameters of 82 to 94 nm; Also See Figure 1 for double shell.

  • Lai MM, Cavanagh D (1997). "The molecular biology of coronaviruses". Advances in Virus Research. 48: 1–100. doi:10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60286-9. ISBN 9780120398485. PMID 9233431.

  • Chang CK, Hou MH, Chang CF, Hsiao CD, Huang TH (March 2014). "The SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid protein—forms and functions". Antiviral Research. 103: 39–50. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.12.009. PMID 24418573. See Figure 4c.

  • Neuman BW, Kiss G, Kunding AH, Bhella D, Baksh MF, Connelly S, et al. (April 2011). "A structural analysis of M protein in coronavirus assembly and morphology". Journal of Structural Biology. 174 (1): 11–22. doi:10.1016/j.jsb.2010.11.021. PMC 4486061. PMID 21130884. See Figure 10.

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.). "An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis; Section 2 Genomic Organization". Methods in Molecular Biology. Springer. 1282: 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. ISBN 978-1-4939-2438-7. PMC 4369385. PMID 25720466.

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). "Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis". Methods in Molecular Biology. 1282: 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. ISBN 978-1-4939-2437-0. PMC 4369385. PMID 25720466.

  • Snijder EJ, Bredenbeek PJ, Dobbe JC, Thiel V, Ziebuhr J, Poon LL, et al. (August 2003). "Unique and conserved features of genome and proteome of SARS-coronavirus, an early split-off from the coronavirus group 2 lineage". Journal of Molecular Biology. 331 (5): 991–1004. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(03)00865-9. PMID 12927536. See Figure 1.

  • Simmons G, Zmora P, Gierer S, Heurich A, Pöhlmann S (December 2013). "Proteolytic activation of the SARS-coronavirus spike protein: cutting enzymes at the cutting edge of antiviral research". Antiviral Research. 100 (3): 605–14. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.028. PMC 3889862. PMID 24121034. See Figure 2.

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015), Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.), "Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis; Section 4.1 Attachment and Entry", Coronaviruses: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, Springer, 1282, pp. 1–23, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1, ISBN 978-1-4939-2438-7, PMC 4369385, PMID 25720466

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015), Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.), "Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis; Section 2 Genomic Organization", Coronaviruses: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, Springer, pp. 1–23, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1, ISBN 978-1-4939-2438-7, PMC 4369385, PMID 25720466

  • Sexton NR, Smith EC, Blanc H, Vignuzzi M, Peersen OB, Denison MR (August 2016). "Homology-Based Identification of a Mutation in the Coronavirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase That Confers Resistance to Multiple Mutagens". Journal of Virology. 90 (16): 7415–28. doi:10.1128/JVI.00080-16. PMC 4984655. PMID 27279608. Finally, these results, combined with those from previous work (33, 44), suggest that CoVs encode at least three proteins involved in fidelity (nsp12-RdRp, nsp14-ExoN, and nsp10), supporting the assembly of a multiprotein replicase-fidelity complex, as described previously (38).

  • Fehr AR, Perlman S (2015). "Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis". In Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.). Coronaviruses. Methods in Molecular Biology. 1282. Springer. pp. 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1. ISBN 978-1-4939-2438-7. PMC 4369385. PMID 25720466. See section: Coronavirus Life Cycle—Assembly and Release

  • "Transmission of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-01-31. Retrieved 2020-02-01.

  • Masters PS (2006-01-01). "The molecular biology of coronaviruses". Advances in Virus Research. Academic Press. 66: 193–292. doi:10.1016/S0065-3527(06)66005-3. ISBN 9780120398690. PMID 16877062. Nevertheless, the interaction between S protein and receptor remains the principal, if not sole, determinant of coronavirus host species range and tissue tropism.

  • Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL (March 2019). "Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 17 (3): 181–192. doi:10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9. PMID 30531947. Different SARS-CoV strains isolated from several hosts vary in their binding affinities for human ACE2 and consequently in their infectivity of human cells76,78 (Fig. 6b)

  • Li F, Li W, Farzan M, Harrison SC (September 2005). "Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor". Science. 309 (5742): 1864–68. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1864L. doi:10.1126/science.1116480. PMID 16166518.

  • Wertheim JO, Chu DK, Peiris JS, Kosakovsky Pond SL, Poon LL (June 2013). "A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses". Journal of Virology. 87 (12): 7039–45. doi:10.1128/JVI.03273-12. PMC 3676139. PMID 23596293.

  • Woo PC, Lau SK, Lam CS, Lau CC, Tsang AK, Lau JH, et al. (April 2012). "Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus". Journal of Virology. 86 (7): 3995–4008. doi:10.1128/JVI.06540-11. PMC 3302495. PMID 22278237.

  • Bidokhti MR, Tråvén M, Krishna NK, Munir M, Belák S, Alenius S, Cortey M (September 2013). "Evolutionary dynamics of bovine coronaviruses: natural selection pattern of the spike gene implies adaptive evolution of the strains". The Journal of General Virology. 94 (Pt 9): 2036–49. doi:10.1099/vir.0.054940-0. PMID 23804565.

  • Vijgen L, Keyaerts E, Moës E, Thoelen I, Wollants E, Lemey P, et al. (February 2005). "Complete genomic sequence of human coronavirus OC43: molecular clock analysis suggests a relatively recent zoonotic coronavirus transmission event". Journal of Virology. 79 (3): 1595–604. doi:10.1128/jvi.79.3.1595-1604.2005. PMC 544107. PMID 15650185.

  • Lau SK, Lee P, Tsang AK, Yip CC, Tse H, Lee RA, et al. (November 2011). "Molecular epidemiology of human coronavirus OC43 reveals evolution of different genotypes over time and recent emergence of a novel genotype due to natural recombination". Journal of Virology. 85 (21): 11325–37. doi:10.1128/JVI.05512-11. PMC 3194943. PMID 21849456.

  • Lau SK, Li KS, Tsang AK, Lam CS, Ahmed S, Chen H, et al. (August 2013). "Genetic characterization of Betacoronavirus lineage C viruses in bats reveals marked sequence divergence in the spike protein of pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 in Japanese pipistrelle: implications for the origin of the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus". Journal of Virology. 87 (15): 8638–50. doi:10.1128/JVI.01055-13. PMC 3719811. PMID 23720729.

  • Huynh J, Li S, Yount B, Smith A, Sturges L, Olsen JC, et al. (December 2012). "Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63". Journal of Virology. 86 (23): 12816–25. doi:10.1128/JVI.00906-12. PMC 3497669. PMID 22993147.

  • Vijaykrishna D, Smith GJ, Zhang JX, Peiris JS, Chen H, Guan Y (April 2007). "Evolutionary insights into the ecology of coronaviruses". Journal of Virology. 81 (8): 4012–20. doi:10.1128/jvi.02605-06. PMC 1866124. PMID 17267506.

  • Gouilh, Meriadeg Ar; Puechmaille, Sébastien J.; Gonzalez, Jean-Paul; Teeling, Emma; Kittayapong, Pattamaporn; Manuguerra, Jean-Claude (October 2011). "SARS-Coronavirus ancestor's foot-prints in South-East Asian bat colonies and the refuge theory". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 11 (7): 1690–1702. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2011.06.021. PMID 21763784.

  • Cui J, Han N, Streicker D, Li G, Tang X, Shi Z, et al. (October 2007). "Evolutionary relationships between bat coronaviruses and their hosts". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 13 (10): 1526–32. doi:10.3201/eid1310.070448. PMC 2851503. PMID 18258002.

  • Crossley BM, Mock RE, Callison SA, Hietala SK (December 2012). "Identification and characterization of a novel alpaca respiratory coronavirus most closely related to the human coronavirus 229E". Viruses. 4 (12): 3689–700. doi:10.3390/v4123689. PMC 3528286. PMID 23235471.

  • Liu P, Shi L, Zhang W, He J, Liu C, Zhao C, et al. (November 2017). "Prevalence and genetic diversity analysis of human coronaviruses among cross-border children". Virology Journal. 14 (1): 230. doi:10.1186/s12985-017-0896-0. PMC 5700739. PMID 29166910.

  • Forgie S, Marrie TJ (February 2009). "Healthcare-associated atypical pneumonia". Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 30 (1): 67–85. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1119811. PMID 19199189.

  • Nextstrain, phylogenetic tree of Beta-CoV

  • Corman VM, Muth D, Niemeyer D, Drosten C (2018). "Hosts and Sources of Endemic Human Coronaviruses". Advances in Virus Research. 100: 163–88. doi:10.1016/bs.aivir.2018.01.001. ISBN 978-0-12-815201-0. PMID 29551135.

  • Smith RD (December 2006). "Responding to global infectious disease outbreaks: lessons from SARS on the role of risk perception, communication and management". Social Science & Medicine. 63 (12): 3113–23. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.08.004. PMID 16978751.

  • "Case‐control study to assess potential risk factors related to human illness caused by the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2014-03-28. Retrieved 2014-04-24.

  • "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)—Republic of Korea". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2016-12-01.

  • Pandemic Epidemic Diseases news: Infectious disease outbreaks reported in the Eastern Mediterranean region in 2018 Archived 29 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine Between 12 January through 31 May 2018, the National IHR Focal Point of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia reported 75 laboratory confirmed cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS_CoV), including twenty-three (23) deaths. Date www.emro.who.int, accessed 29 January 2020

  • "Coronavirus COVID-19 Global Cases by Johns Hopkins CSSE". ArcGIS. Johns Hopkins CSSE. Retrieved 2020-03-29.

  • Wang, Chen; Horby, Peter W.; Hayden, Frederick G.; Gao, George F. (2020-01-24). "A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern". The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9.

  • "Old age, sepsis tied to poor COVID-19 outcomes, death". CIDRAP, University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2020-03-29.

  • Marcolini, Barbara; Stein, Robin (2020-03-23). "'Brace Yourself': How Doctors in Italy Responded to Coronavirus". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-03-26.

  • "Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2020-03-29.

  • Ñamendys-Silva, Silvio A (2020). "Respiratory support for patients with COVID-19 infection". The Lancet Respiratory Medicine. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30110-7. Retrieved 2020-03-29.

  • Oh, Myoung-don; et al. (2018). "Middle East respiratory syndrome: what we learned from the 2015 outbreak in the Republic of Korea". Korean J Intern Med. 33 (2): 233–246. doi:10.3904/kjim.2018.031.

  • Doucleef M (2012-09-26). "Scientists Go Deep On Genes Of SARS-Like Virus". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2012-09-27. Retrieved 2012-09-27.

  • Falco M (2012-09-24). "New SARS-like virus poses medical mystery". CNN Health. Archived from the original on 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2013-03-16.

  • "New SARS-like virus found in Middle East". Al-Jazeera. 2012-09-24. Archived from the original on 2013-03-09. Retrieved 2013-03-16.

  • Kelland K (2012-09-28). "New virus not spreading easily between people: WHO". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2012-11-24. Retrieved 2013-03-16.

  • Nouveau coronavirus—Point de situation : Un nouveau cas d'infection confirmé Archived 8 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Novel coronavirus—Status report: A new case of confirmed infection) 12 May 2013, social-sante.gouv.fr

  • CDC (2019-08-02). "MERS Transmission". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2019-12-10.

  • "Novel coronavirus infection—update". World Health Association. 2013-05-22. Archived from the original on 2013-06-07. Retrieved 2013-05-23.

  • CDC (2019-08-02). "MERS in the U.S." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 2019-12-15. Retrieved 2019-12-10.

  • Sang-Hun C (2015-06-08). "MERS Virus's Path: One Man, Many South Korean Hospitals". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-07-15. Retrieved 2017-03-01.

  • "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)". WHO. Archived from the original on 2019-10-18. Retrieved 2019-12-10.

  • The Editorial Board (2020-01-29). "Is the World Ready for the Coronavirus?—Distrust in science and institutions could be a major problem if the outbreak worsens". The New York Times. Retrieved 2020-01-30.

  • "WHO Statement Regarding Cluster of Pneumonia Cases in Wuhan, China". www.who.int. 2020-01-09. Archived from the original on 2020-01-14. Retrieved 2020-01-10.

  • "Laboratory testing of human suspected cases of novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection. Interim guidance, 10 January 2020" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-01-20. Retrieved 2020-01-14.

  • "Novel Coronavirus 2019, Wuhan, China | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-01-23. Archived from the original on 2020-01-20. Retrieved 2020-01-23.

  • "2019 Novel Coronavirus infection (Wuhan, China): Outbreak update". Canada.ca. 2020-01-21.

  • Cohen J (2020-01-26). "Wuhan seafood market may not be source of novel virus spreading globally". ScienceMag American Association for the Advancement of Science. (AAAS). Archived from the original on 2020-01-27. Retrieved 2020-01-29.

  • Eschner K (2020-01-28). "We're still not sure where the COVID-19 really came from". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 2020-01-29. Retrieved 2020-01-30.

  • Hui, David S.; I Azhar, Esam; Madani, Tariq A.; Ntoumi, Francine; Kock, Richard; Dar, Osman; Ippolito, Giuseppe; Mchugh, Timothy D.; Memish, Ziad A.; Drosten, Christian; Zumla, Alimuddin; Petersen, Eskild (February 2020). "The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health—The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 91: 264–66. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009. PMID 31953166.

  • Eschner K (2020-01-28). "We're still not sure where the COVID-19 really came from". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 2020-01-29. Retrieved 2020-01-30.

  • Murphy, FA; Gibbs, EPJ; Horzinek, MC; Studdart MJ (1999). Veterinary Virology. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 495–508. ISBN 978-0-12-511340-3.

  • Bande F, Arshad SS, Bejo MH, Moeini H, Omar AR (2015). "Progress and challenges toward the development of vaccines against avian infectious bronchitis". Journal of Immunology Research. 2015: 424860. doi:10.1155/2015/424860. PMC 4411447. PMID 25954763.

  • Murray J (2014-04-16). "What's New With Ferret FIP-like Disease?" (xls). Archived from the original on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2014-04-24.

  • Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S (December 2005). "Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 69 (4): 635–64. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.4.635-664.2005. PMC 1306801. PMID 16339739.

  • "Rat Coronavirus—an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com.

  • Zhou P, Fan H, Lan T, Yang XL, Shi WF, Zhang W, et al. (April 2018). "Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin". Nature. 556 (7700): 255–58. Bibcode:2018Natur.556..255Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0010-9. PMID 29618817.

  • Tirotta E, Carbajal KS, Schaumburg CS, Whitman L, Lane TE (July 2010). "Cell replacement therapies to promote remyelination in a viral model of demyelination". Journal of Neuroimmunology. 224 (1–2): 101–07. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.05.013. PMC 2919340. PMID 20627412.

  • Cruz JL, Sola I, Becares M, Alberca B, Plana J, Enjuanes L, Zuñiga S (June 2011). "Coronavirus gene 7 counteracts host defenses and modulates virus virulence". PLOS Pathogens. 7 (6): e1002090. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002090. PMC 3111541. PMID 21695242.

  • Cruz JL, Becares M, Sola I, Oliveros JC, Enjuanes L, Zúñiga S (September 2013). "Alphacoronavirus protein 7 modulates host innate immune response". Journal of Virology. 87 (17): 9754–67. doi:10.1128/JVI.01032-13. PMC 3754097. PMID 23824792.

  • "Merck Veterinary Manual". Merck Veterinary Manual. Archived from the original on 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2020-01-24.

  • "Enteric Coronavirus". Diseases of Research Animals. Archived from the original on 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2020-01-24.

  • Wei X, She G, Wu T, Xue C, Cao Y (February 2020). "PEDV enters cells through clathrin-, caveolae-, and lipid raft-mediated endocytosis and traffics via the endo-/lysosome pathway". Veterinary Research. 51 (1): 10. doi:10.1186/s13567-020-0739-7. PMC 7011528. PMID 32041637.

    1. Thiel V (editor). (2007). Coronaviruses: Molecular and Cellular Biology (1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-16-5.[page needed]

    Further reading

    Classification
    D

    Languages

    এর দ্বারা পোস্ট করা এই সময়ে

    কোন মন্তব্য নেই:

    একটি মন্তব্য পোস্ট করুন

    এতে সদস্যতা: মন্তব্যগুলি পোস্ট করুন (Atom)